# Calculus¶

This section covers how to do basic calculus tasks such as derivatives, integrals, limits, and series expansions in Diofant.

## Derivatives¶

To take derivatives, use the diff() function.

>>> diff(cos(x), x)
-sin(x)
>>> diff(exp(x**2), x)
⎛ 2⎞
⎝x ⎠
2⋅ℯ    ⋅x


diff() can take multiple derivatives at once. To take multiple derivatives, pass the variable as many times as you wish to differentiate, or pass a number after the variable. For example, both of the following find the third derivative of $$x^4$$.

>>> diff(x**4, x, x, x)
24⋅x
>>> diff(x**4, x, 3)
24⋅x


You can also take derivatives with respect to many variables at once. Just pass each derivative in order, using the same syntax as for single variable derivatives. For example, each of the following will compute $$\frac{\partial^7}{\partial x\partial y^2\partial z^4} e^{x y z}$$.

>>> expr = exp(x*y*z)
>>> diff(expr, x, y, y, z, z, z, z)
x⋅y⋅z  3  2 ⎛ 3  3  3       2  2  2                ⎞
ℯ     ⋅x ⋅y ⋅⎝x ⋅y ⋅z  + 14⋅x ⋅y ⋅z  + 52⋅x⋅y⋅z + 48⎠
>>> diff(expr, x, y, 2, z, 4)
x⋅y⋅z  3  2 ⎛ 3  3  3       2  2  2                ⎞
ℯ     ⋅x ⋅y ⋅⎝x ⋅y ⋅z  + 14⋅x ⋅y ⋅z  + 52⋅x⋅y⋅z + 48⎠
>>> diff(expr, x, y, y, z, 4)
x⋅y⋅z  3  2 ⎛ 3  3  3       2  2  2                ⎞
ℯ     ⋅x ⋅y ⋅⎝x ⋅y ⋅z  + 14⋅x ⋅y ⋅z  + 52⋅x⋅y⋅z + 48⎠


diff() can also be called as a method diff(). The two ways of calling diff() are exactly the same, and are provided only for convenience.

>>> expr.diff(x, y, y, z, 4)
x⋅y⋅z  3  2 ⎛ 3  3  3       2  2  2                ⎞
ℯ     ⋅x ⋅y ⋅⎝x ⋅y ⋅z  + 14⋅x ⋅y ⋅z  + 52⋅x⋅y⋅z + 48⎠


To create an unevaluated derivative, use the Derivative class. It has the same syntax as diff().

>>> Derivative(expr, x, y, y, z, 4)
7
∂     ⎛ x⋅y⋅z⎞
──────────⎝ℯ     ⎠
4   2
∂z  ∂y  ∂x


Such unevaluated objects also used when Diofant does not know how to compute the derivative of an expression.

To evaluate an unevaluated derivative, use the doit() method.

>>> _.doit()
x⋅y⋅z  3  2 ⎛ 3  3  3       2  2  2                ⎞
ℯ     ⋅x ⋅y ⋅⎝x ⋅y ⋅z  + 14⋅x ⋅y ⋅z  + 52⋅x⋅y⋅z + 48⎠


## Integrals¶

To compute an integral, use the integrate() function. There are two kinds of integrals, definite and indefinite. To compute an indefinite integral, do

>>> integrate(cos(x), x)
sin(x)


Note

For indefinite integrals, Diofant does not include the constant of integration.

For example, to compute a definite integral

$\int_0^\infty e^{-x}\,dx,$

we would do

>>> integrate(exp(-x), (x, 0, oo))
1


Tip

$$\infty$$ in Diofant is oo (that’s the lowercase letter “oh” twice).

As with indefinite integrals, you can pass multiple limit tuples to perform a multiple integral. For example, to compute

$\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} e^{- x^{2} - y^{2}}\, dx\, dy,$

do

>>> integrate(exp(-x**2 - y**2), (x, -oo, oo), (y, -oo, oo))
π


If integrate() is unable to compute an integral, it returns an unevaluated Integral object.

>>> integrate(x**x, x)
⌠
⎮  x
⎮ x  dx
⌡
>>> print(_)
Integral(x**x, x)


As with Derivative, you can create an unevaluated integral directly. To later evaluate this integral, call doit().

>>> Integral(log(x)**2, x)
⌠
⎮    2
⎮ log (x) dx
⌡
>>> _.doit()
2
x⋅log (x) - 2⋅x⋅log(x) + 2⋅x


integrate() uses powerful algorithms that are always improving to compute both definite and indefinite integrals, including a partial implementation of the Risch algorithm

>>> Integral((x**4 + x**2*exp(x) - x**2 - 2*x*exp(x) - 2*x -
...           exp(x))*exp(x)/((x - 1)**2*(x + 1)**2*(exp(x) + 1)), x)
⌠
⎮  x ⎛ x  2      x      x    4    2      ⎞
⎮ ℯ ⋅⎝ℯ ⋅x  - 2⋅ℯ ⋅x - ℯ  + x  - x  - 2⋅x⎠
⎮ ──────────────────────────────────────── dx
⎮        ⎛ x    ⎞        2        2
⎮        ⎝ℯ  + 1⎠⋅(x - 1) ⋅(x + 1)
⌡
>>> _.doit()
x
ℯ         ⎛ x    ⎞
────── + log⎝ℯ  + 1⎠
2
x  - 1


and an algorithm using Meijer G-functions that is useful for computing integrals in terms of special functions, especially definite integrals

>>> Integral(sin(x**2), x)
⌠
⎮    ⎛ 2⎞
⎮ sin⎝x ⎠ dx
⌡
>>> _.doit()
⎛  ___  ⎞
___   ___         ⎜╲╱ 2 ⋅x⎟
3⋅╲╱ 2 ⋅╲╱ π ⋅fresnels⎜───────⎟⋅Γ(3/4)
⎜   ___ ⎟
⎝ ╲╱ π  ⎠
──────────────────────────────────────
8⋅Γ(7/4)

>>> Integral(x**y*exp(-x), (x, 0, oo))
∞
⌠
⎮  -x  y
⎮ ℯ  ⋅x  dx
⌡
0
>>> _.doit()
⎧ Γ(y + 1)    for -re(y) < 1
⎪
⎪∞
⎪⌠
⎨⎮  -x  y
⎪⎮ ℯ  ⋅x  dx    otherwise
⎪⌡
⎪0
⎩


This last example returned a Piecewise expression because the integral does not converge unless $$\Re(y) > 1.$$

## Sums and Products¶

Much like integrals, there are summation() and product() to compute sums and products respectively.

>>> summation(2**x, (x, 0, y - 1))
y
2  - 1
>>> product(z, (x, 1, y))
y
z


Unevaluated sums and products are represented by Sum and Product classes.

>>> Sum(1, (x, 1, z))
z
___
╲
╲   1
╱
╱
‾‾‾
x = 1
>>> _.doit()
z


## Limits¶

Diofant can compute symbolic limits with the limit() function. To compute a directional limit

$\lim_{x\to 0^+}\frac{\sin x}{x},$

do

>>> limit(sin(x)/x, x, 0)
1


limit() should be used instead of subs() whenever the point of evaluation is a singularity. Even though Diofant has objects to represent $$\infty$$, using them for evaluation is not reliable because they do not keep track of things like rate of growth. Also, things like $$\infty - \infty$$ and $$\frac{\infty}{\infty}$$ return $$\mathrm{nan}$$ (not-a-number). For example

>>> expr = x**2/exp(x)
>>> expr.subs({x: oo})
nan
>>> limit(expr, x, oo)
0


Like Derivative and Integral, limit() has an unevaluated counterpart, Limit. To evaluate it, use doit().

>>> Limit((cos(x) - 1)/x, x, 0)
cos(x) - 1
lim ──────────
x─→0⁺    x
>>> _.doit()
0


To change side, pass '-' as a third argument to limit(). For example, to compute

$\lim_{x\to 0^-}\frac{1}{x},$

do

>>> limit(1/x, x, 0, dir='-')
-∞


You can also evaluate bidirectional limit

>>> limit(sin(x)/x, x, 0, dir='real')
1
>>> limit(1/x, x, 0, dir='real')
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
PoleError: left and right limits for expression 1/x at point x=0 seems to be not equal


## Series Expansion¶

Diofant can compute asymptotic series expansions of functions around a point.

>>> series(exp(sin(x)), x, 0, 4)
2
x     ⎛ 4⎞
1 + x + ── + O⎝x ⎠
2


The $$O\left (x^4\right )$$ term, an instance of O at the end represents the Landau order term at $$x=0$$ (not to be confused with big O notation used in computer science, which generally represents the Landau order term at $$x=\infty$$). Order terms can be created and manipulated outside of series().

>>> x + x**3 + x**6 + O(x**4)
3    ⎛ 4⎞
x + x  + O⎝x ⎠
>>> x*O(1)
O(x)


If you do not want the order term, use the removeO() method.

>>> series(exp(x), x, 0, 3).removeO()
2
x
── + x + 1
2


The O notation supports arbitrary limit points (other than 0):

>>> series(exp(x - 1), x, x0=1)
2          3          4          5
(x - 1)    (x - 1)    (x - 1)    (x - 1)         ⎛       6       ⎞
──────── + ──────── + ──────── + ──────── + x + O⎝(x - 1) ; x → 1⎠
2          6          24        120